Introduction

Much like the recurring theme in Leo Tolstoy's literature that “we are often hurt the most by those we trust the most,” cultural practices in which we place the greatest trust frequently end up exacerbating certain social problems in real life. Despite its numerous positive impacts throughout history, chivalry's role in promoting bullying behaviors has been significantly overlooked. Extensive research has demonstrated the inseparable connection between traditional gender beliefs and aggressive behaviors, including school bullying (Steinfeldt et al., 2012; Gereš et al., 2021; Malonda et al., 2022). Psychological studies on cognitive dissonance, self-justification, and just-world bias can serve as a theoretical foundation for exploring how chivalry promotes bullying (Festinger, 1957; Aronson, 1999; Lerner, 1980). While researchers such as Reardon and Govender (2013) and Gereš et al. (2021) have thoroughly examined the influence of chivalry on male perpetrators of bullying, others such as Lehman (2017), Bucchianeri et al. (2016), and Lessard et al. (2020) have shown that individuals who do not conform to traditional gender norms—largely influenced by chivalry—are more likely to become victims of bullying, particularly sexual minorities. Despite substantial research analyzing how cultural norms emphasizing masculinity contribute to bullying and aggression, as well as research on the influence of chivalry on masculinity and aggression levels overall, no attempt has been made to specifically analyze chivalry's role in promoting bullying behaviors. This paper aims to explore how the emphasis on masculinity and adherence to traditional gender norms associated with chivalry exacerbate bullying behaviors, particularly against sexual minorities.

Cognitive Dissonance, Self-Justification, and Just-World Fallacy

Through the Lens of Chivalry

Leon Festinger (1957) defines cognitive dissonance as the mental discomfort caused by holding contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously, prompting individuals to reduce this discomfort by altering beliefs or justifying actions. Elliot Aronson (1999) further expanded on this concept, highlighting self-justification as a potent mechanism enabling individuals to uphold a positive self-image despite actions conflicting with their beliefs. This dynamic is particularly evident in the context of chivalry, where individuals may justify aggressive and even bullying behaviors by appealing to ideals of protection, honor, and social order. The concept of chivalry, deeply rooted in the medieval code of conduct for knights, encompasses ideals such as bravery, honor, and protection of the weak. Over time, these principles have become ingrained in broader societal norms, exerting influence on behaviors and attitudes, particularly with regard to gender roles and the employment of aggression. In cases of bullying, the aggressive behavior can conflict with the perpetrator's self-perception as an honorable person. However, through the process of self-justification, perpetrators may reinterpret their actions as necessary or even virtuous. They might convince themselves that their bullying behaviors serve as a means to defend group interests or maintain social order, which embodies the essence of chivalry and garners significant respect, thereby resolving the dissonance between their actions and self-concept.

In addition to perpetrators’ justifications for bullying behavior, the chivalric code also influences the way bystanders perceive and respond to bullying behaviors based on gender. According to Lerner’s (1980) Just-World Theory, individuals tend to believe that the world is fundamentally just and that people generally get what they deserve. In this context, bystanders may misinterpret the bullying behavior as a justified response to a perceived threat or wrongdoing. This misinterpretation is further compounded by the belief that chivalry endorses the use of violence as a means of resolving societal issues. As a result, bystanders may be less likely to intervene or condemn bullying behavior, perceiving it as a legitimate form of social regulation.

Male Perpetrators: Bullying as a Tool for Displaying Chivalrous Masculinity

Adolescence is a critical period of identity formation, during which individuals are particularly sensitive to social influences and pressures. As Glick and Hilt (2000) suggest, adolescents may be particularly motivated to consolidate gender stereotypes as a means of maintaining a stable self-image. This motivation is driven by the need to fit into established cultural norms and to be perceived positively by peers and society at large. The concept of chivalry, deeply embedded in cultural norms, plays a significant role in shaping these gender stereotypes of male adolescents. Chivalry, traditionally associated with ideals of bravery, honor, and protection, has been closely linked to notions of masculinity. Traditional masculinity “is characterized by instrumental personality traits such as aggression,” and the definition of chivalry within cultural norms significantly influences gender stereotypes, with males being guided by social expectations regarding gender roles in regulating and justifying behaviors such as aggression and violence (Malonda et al., 2022). The internalization of these gendered expectations can lead adolescents to adopt bullying behaviors, which align with these stereotypes, reinforcing their self-image and their social identity within the framework of chivalry.

Research across various countries has demonstrated the influence of the masculinity inherent in traditional chivalric values on bullying behavior. A substantial body of research posits the hypothesis that gender differences in aggressive behavior can be attributed, at least partially, to culturally constructed notions of “traditional or hegemonic masculinity” (Beesley & McGuire, 2009). Traditional masculinity, often associated with traits such as strength, dominance, and a propensity for aggression, aligns closely with the chivalric ideal of the male protector. This alignment can create a social environment where aggressive behavior, including bullying, is not only tolerated but also valorized as a demonstration of masculine strength and chivalric duty. For instance, Reardon and Govender (2013) conducted a study in South Africa that revealed that adherence to traditional forms of masculinity among young men is positively associated with higher levels of aggression. This behavioral pattern suggests that these individuals may employ bullying as a means to reinforce their dominance, aligning with the chivalric concept of male protectorship. Further supporting this notion, Gereš et al. (2021) conducted a cross-sectional study with second- and third-grade students from secondary schools in Croatia. The study revealed that a significantly higher proportion of bullying perpetrators reported adherence to traditional masculinity norms compared to non-bullying students. Together, these studies suggest that young men who embrace traditional notions of masculinity are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors as a way of conforming to the social expectations associated with their gender role influenced by chivalry.

The social norm of chivalry, deeply ingrained in many cultures, is closely linked to the concept of male dominance, which often manifests through aggressive behaviors, including bullying. Chivalry traditionally emphasizes the dominant position of men within society and assigns them the role of protectors. Wilkinson (2019) highlights that this dominant role, rooted in chivalric ideals, can lead to the suppression of others, particularly when men perceive a threat to their authority or status. In such scenarios, aggression may be employed as a means of asserting dominance and reinforcing traditional gender roles, particularly in environments like schools where social hierarchies are often contested. When aggression and dominance are valorized as traits of a chivalric “real man,” those who engage in bullying may not only avoid social sanctions but may also receive positive reinforcement from their peers. This can create a cycle of aggression where bullying becomes a means of achieving and maintaining social status, further entrenching the association between chivalry, masculinity, and aggressive behavior. In such environments, bullying can become a tool for displaying chivalrous masculinity, with male perpetrators using aggression to reinforce their role as protectors of group interests and enforcers of cultural norms.

Victims: Punishment for Violating Chivalric Gender Norms

According to its definition, normative aggression involves the goals of reinforcing cultural norms and damaging a target’s sense of self (Juvonen et al., 2003; de Bruyn et al., 2010). Deviations from cultural norms are a significant trigger for normative aggression, and bullying is a prime example of normative aggression, especially when it involves gender nonconformity. Males who display behaviors perceived as weak or sensitive, and females who exhibit confidence or assertiveness, often find themselves at the receiving end of such aggression. Sufficient research suggests that students are subjected to bullying when their behavior deviates from societal expectations of gender norms, either by exhibiting unconventional masculine or feminine behaviors (Lehman, 2017). The aggression in these cases is not random; it is a calculated response to behavior that challenges the existing chivalric gender norms, serving as a tool to reinforce traditional chivalric gender roles. Not only are male adolescents bullied for displaying behaviors that do not align with traditional masculine roles, but females who encroach into traditionally masculine realms are also victimized (Lehman, 2017). To exacerbate the situation, in comparison to general bullying, victimization that specifically targets stigmatized identities—known as bias-based bullying—can have even more deleterious impacts on adolescents' school adjustment (Russell et al., 2012). By way of illustration, Russell et al.(2012) showed that in addition to experiencing general harassment at school, adolescents who reported bias-based harassment (e.g., based on sexual orientation) were more prone to truancy and bad academic performance.

Gender norms rooted in the chivalric tradition have long dictated rigid expectations for behavior, particularly regarding sexuality and gender expression. Individuals who deviate from these chivalric norms, especially those in sexual and gender minority (SGM) groups, are particularly prone to being targeted by peers, with this vulnerability well-documented in research (Birkett et al., 2009; Robinson & Espelage, 2011). As early as 2012, evidence indicated that 91% of these adolescents reported experiencing bias-based bullying from their peers (Russell et al., 2012). More recent research has shown that gender minority youth, those who do not conform to traditional gender norms, are also at heightened risk for multiple forms of bias-based bullying (Bucchianeri et al., 2016; Lessard et al., 2020). A national study in the U.S. found that over a quarter of LGBTQ students reported being victimized at school based on these characteristics (Kosciw et al., 2018). These phenomena have attracted considerable scholarly attention, leading to the creation of a specialized term known as homophobic bullying (HB). This term has been used to describe intentional actions aimed at demeaning or discriminating against peers based on their perceived or actual sexual orientation, representing a specific type of discriminatory bullying (Meyer, 2008). HB is highly frequent in school contexts, and research has found that sexual minority youth experience bullying at rates two times higher than their heterosexual peers (Earnshaw et al., 2018). Undoubtedly, if chivalry did not emphasize the traditional societal norms defining what men and women should be, bullying against sexual minorities could be significantly alleviated. The exacerbation of bullying behaviors by chivalry becomes apparent from this perspective.

Conclusion

Despite its positive impact on society, chivalry often exacerbates bullying behavior, which is frequently overlooked. Chivalry is deeply intertwined with masculinity, but its additional emphasis on safeguarding group interests and preserving social order makes it more effective at justifying bullying behaviors than masculinity alone. This paper explores how chivalry subtly intensifies bullying behaviors from a psychological perspective, including cognitive dissonance, self-justification, and just-world fallacy. By analyzing from the male perpetrator's perspective, the paper examines how the traditional gender norms of chivalry, driven by societal expectations of masculinity, contribute to the escalation of bullying behavior. From the perspective of victims within SGM groups, the paper examines how gender norms rooted in chivalry perpetuate and worsen the environment for SGM, focusing on the widespread phenomenon of homophobic bullying across various countries. 

By comprehending and questioning the traditional gender roles and social norms promoted by chivalry, this paper offers a deeper insight into bullying behaviors, especially those targeting sexual minorities. This paper suggests that only through re-examining and challenging these traditional chivalric notions can we effectively reduce bullying based on gender and sexual orientation, thereby promoting social equity and inclusion. Future research should focus on how to mitigate chivalry's impact on traditional gender stereotypes and the overemphasis of masculinity, and address the intensified bullying of the LGBT+ community stemming from this impact.

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